Psychologists study motivation because they want to know why a behavior occurs. Motivation is the process that initiates, directs, and sustains behavior while simultaneously satisfying physiological or psychological needs. A motive is a reason or purpose for behavior.( Atkinson 1966:56)
Theories of Motivation
Several theories describe the basis for motivation.
An instinct is an inborn, unlearned, fixed pattern of behavior that is biologically determined and is characteristic of an entire species. The idea of attributing human and animal behavior to instincts was not seriously considered until Charles Darwin suggested that humans evolved from lower animals.
William McDougall believed that instincts were "the prime movers of all human activity" He identified 18 instincts, including parental instinct, curiosity, escape, reproduction, self-assertion, pugnacity, and gregariousness. However, psychologists do not agree on what and how many human instincts there are. While McDougall suggested 18, others suggested even more.
Instinct theory was widely accepted by psychologists for the first 20 or 30 years of this century. Today, the idea that motivation is based on instincts has been replaced by other theories because psychologists recognized that human behavior is too diverse and unpredictable to be consistent across our species. Further, there is no scientific way to prove the existence of instincts in humans. Many feel that instinct theory provides a description rather than an explanation of behavior.
Drive-reduction theory was popularized by Clark Hull and suggests that motivation results from attempting to keep a balanced internal state.
Homeostasis is the built-in tendency to maintain internal stability or equilibrium. Any deviation from homeostasis creates a need. A need results in a drive for action. A drive, therefore, is a psychological state of tension or arousal that motivates activities to reduce this tension and restore homeostatic balance.
Primary drives are drives that arise from biological needs. Secondary drives are learned through operant or classical conditioning.
Drive-reduction theory can be diagrammed as:
Lack of Homeostasis
Need
Drive
I Motivation to Act
4 Homeostasis
For instance, homeostasis works to maintain a constant internal body temperature in humans of approximately 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. If body temperature goes above this average temperature, our bodies automatically respond (e.g., perspiration) to restore equilibrium. These automatic responses may not be sufficient by themselves, and we may be motivated to take other actions (e.g., remove some clothing).(Atkinson 1966: 57)
The nervous systems are involved in maintaining homeostasis. For instance, the parasympathetic branch acts to counteract heat and the sympathetic branch responds to cold. Both of these branches are governed by the hypothalamus, a structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs (e.g., temperature, hunger, thirst).
Drive theories, however, cannot explain all motivation. Motivation can exist without drive arousal. For instance, we often eat when there is no need to eat (i.e., we are not physically hungry).
Incentive theories propose that external stimuli regulate motivational states (e.g., the sight of a hot fudge sundae motivates eating), and that human behavior is goal-directed. That is, anticipated rewards (i.e., the taste of the sundae) can direct and encourage behavior. Rewards, in motivational terms, are incentives, and behavior is goal-directed to obtain these rewards. Incentives vary from person to person and can change over time.
Many psychologists believe that instead of contradicting each other, drive and incentive theories may work together in motivating behavior.
Arousal theory suggests that the aim of motivation is to maintain an optimal level of arousal. Arousal is a person's state of alertness and mental and physical activation. If arousal is less than the optimal level, we do something to stimulate it. If arousal is greater than the optimal level, we seek to reduce the stimulation. The level of arousal considered optimal varies from person to person.
The Yerkes-Dodson law states that a particular level of motivational arousal produces optimal performance on a task. Research suggests that people perform best when arousal is moderate. On easy or simple tasks, people can perform better under higher levels of arousal. On difficult or complex tasks, the negative effects of over-arousal are particularly strong.(Research,Chicago ,1969: 25)
Richard Solomon proposed an opponent-process theory of motivation. This theory argues that one emotional state will trigger an opposite emotional state that lasts long after the original emotion has disappeared. That is, an increase in arousal will produce a calming reaction in the nervous system, and vice versa. It is the opponent
Growth needs
Basic needs
(the realization of one's potential)
Esteem and self-esteem
Love and belonging
Safety and security
Physiological needs: air, food-, water, etc.
Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs to show how we have to satisfy certain basic needs before we can satisfy higher growth needs.( Research,Chicago ,1969: 34)